Annotations to Patricia Grace's Potiki

A Note on the Annotations (These were posted on a discussion web site by “Jillster” in 2003.)

For an English language text, Potiki makes use of an extraordinary number of concepts and words from the Maori language, and so reflects the general shift in New Zealand English (NZE) over the last twenty years or so. This shift is due in part to the Maori Renaissance (a rebirth and investment in Maori culture driven by Maori scholars, leaders and activists), in part to a greater sensitivity and receptivity to Maoritanga on the part of Pakeha (which has created an expanded audience for fiction such as this), and in part to government policies which have seen official support for Maoritanga in recognition of the government's obligations under the Treaty of Waitangi of 1840.

All this has meant that for most New Zealand readers of Potiki, many of these annotations would not be necessary. In fact, a number of terms I have translated here are commonly used in Standard NZE and have no English language equivalent: hangi, marae, kumara, etc. There is another large group of terms which are used occasionally and self-consciously in NZE, and which are at least understood by the English-speaking population. This group of terms bridges the gap between the languages of the Pakeha and the Maori, and here we can see the formation of cultural and linguistic identities which are created out of dialogue between the two cultures.

A number of these terms represent complicated concepts for which there is no English language equivalent, and I have only been able to gesture at their meanings: tipuna, tangi, tapu, whanau, koha, and aroha.

A third group of annotations is of terms, passages, concepts and legends which are alien to the general Pakeha population and are mainly the preserve of the Maori. Such annotations here include several of the plant names, terms for the parts of the whare whakairo and some of the legends (although several legends of the Maui cycle are widely known throughout New Zealand).

My annotations do not translate a Maori text into a Pakeha one, since the boundary between these two cultures is invisible. Maori culture is not monolingual and confined to rural marae, just as Pakeha culture is not monolingual and urban; many Maori identities are forged in the Pakeha-dominated worlds of commerce and government, most Maori do not speak the Maori language, and many Pakeha identities are lived in close relationship with Maori culture.

Instead, there is a broad overlapping of languages and cultures, and the reader of Potiki should realise that this novel represents aspects of Maori culture somewhere in the spectrum that runs from traditional classical Maoritanga to urban gang subculture. It presents the efforts of a coastal whanau to maintain its integrity and aroha against the strong threat of commercial development, and it represents the living and ever-adapting traditions of oral culture. The climax of the novel is Roimata's song in which she weaves together contemporary events, ancient legends, and traditional song. Thus the novel gestures towards innovation, adaptation, invention and youth, while regarding the resources of the past with respect, pride, and interest (these attitudes towards the past and the future are those of Maui-potiki). The novel, then, does not describe what it is to be Maori (that is an impossible task), but describes a dynamic attitude which might be a way of being Maori.

The concepts and legends described in these annotations are only versions of an enormous and ever-changing variety of oral traditions. The versions presented here have no authority, and anyone interested in researching more authoritative versions should consult a member of Ngati Raukawa, Ngati Toa or Te Ati Awa, Patricia Grace's iwi, to whom I respectfully defer.

Annotations to Potiki
Pagination follows University of Hawai'i Press edition, 1995.

7 Tihe Mauriora] Mauri is the life-force which sustains a thing's natural state and balance. In the case of humans, the mauri enters and exits through the nostrils. The phrase tihe mauriora is a blessing; it is commonly used when a person sneezes, since a sneeze is potentially the escape of some mauri. The karakia (prayer, chant or hymn) at the beginning of the Prologue alludes to the Maori Creation myth, and connects the art of carving to other creations. On page 12, the carver breathes mauri into his carving, and on page 36 Granny Tamihana breathes mauri into the baby Potiki.

8 ancestors] The wharenui (meeting house, 25) is not only decorated with carvings of ancestors, it is the embodiment of these ancestors. The ridge pole and roof beams of the house represent the spine and ribs of the originating ancestor of the iwi (tribe) or hapu (clan) (see p. 8 , and the carvings along the front end of the building represent the head and out-reaching arms. When people enter the house, they are entering into the belly of the ancestor ("stomach of the marae" 27), and around the walls and ceiling are carved, painted and woven other ancestors and genealogies that trace their descent from the original chief. On another level, the house represents the original parents Rangi and Papa (sky-father/roof and earth-mother/floor) whose separation from each other allowed a space in which humans and other creatures could thrive.
giving of eyes] The eyes of the carvings have been decorated with paua (abalone) shell.

9 porangi] mad
bullshit artist] liar; a practitioner of the art of bullshitting
rimu] a type of tree and hence of wood

10 poupou] one of the genealogical carvings on the interior of the wharenui (meeting house): one of the ribs of the house/ancestor

15 papakainga] home village

17 wharekai] cook-house

20 Haere mai . . .] Trans.: "Come here, our little helper. Come and eat. Come and have a cup of tea." kai] food or meal

21 paepae] front porch of the wharenui where the elderly men sit; seat of knowledge and wisdom
tipuna] ancestors
whakairo] carving; a whare whakairo (71) is a carved house

23 Tawhiri Matea] god of the winds who opposed the separation of Rangi and Papa. He continuously wars and storms against the creatures of the sea and the land since they did not side with him (see p. 45).

27 marae] the communal buildings and meeting area; centre of Maori cultural life
tangi] weep or mourn. Funerals are called tangi or tangihanga.
Tihei maurimate] a blessing after the mauri has departed
canoe . . . mountain . . . river] symbols of an iwi (tribe): the canoe is that in which the iwi's original ancestors travelled to New Zealand, and the mountain and river represent the place where the tribe has its home and buries its tipuna (ancestors).

28 Homeland] after death, the deceased's wairua (spirit) travels to Te Reinga, the northernmost tip of Aotearoa (New Zealand), where it leaps into the underworld and makes its way to Hawaiki, which is both the spirit world and the legendary homeland of Polynesia. Those left behind mourn the fact that they cannot follow: their "foot is caught/In the root/Of the flower tree" (the pohutukawa tree at Reinga from which the wairua leap into the sea).

29 kihikihi] cicada: its song is represented as "Tatarakihi"
hongi] to press noses: a traditional form of greeting which represents the exchange of mauri
mere pounamu] ceremonial greenstone (jade) club; an heirloom

31 action songs] songs with dance, hand actions, or poi (balls of flax swung from strings)
Titiro ki a Rona . . .] Trans.: "Look at Rona up in the sky, because of the anger of the moon. Look at the tree grasped by her hand, up in the sky." Rona was running along a path at night when a cloud covered the moon and obscured its light. She tripped and cursed the moon. Marama (the moon) came down and snatched up Rona. You can see her in the moon along with the calabashes she was carrying and the ngaio tree she had grasped to stop the moon from carrying her off.

35 Has the rest come?] afterbirth

36 Ko Tokowaru-i-te-Marama . . .] Trans.: "His name is Tokowaru-i-te-Marama".

41 whanau] extended family; relatives.
little bird] nickname for Manu (which means "bird")

42 the story of my birth] Toko's birth closely resembles the birth of Maui-potiki, the trickster demi-god. Maui was born prematurely and was thrown into the sea, where he was tangled in seaweed, and washed up on the shore. Flies and birds tried to eat him but he was saved by his ancestor and given magic powers. His irreverance and inquiring mind caused him many troubles, but led to new discoveries and knowledge.

43 no fishing] because the rest of the afterbirth was not found, the sea has become tapu (sacred and off-limits; taboo): there is a restriction on its use until the tapu is lifted or a period of days has passed.

45 taiaha] staves about five feet long used for fighting. The battles described here are played with traditional Maori weapons instead of the guns, bows and arrows of cowboys and indians.
Tawhiri, Tumatauenga, Tu, Tane, Tangaroa] The children of Rangi and Papa lived at first in the dark, narrow space between their bodies (te ao pouri) until Tane-mahuta (god of the forests and vegetation) was able to separate them. Tawhirimatea or Tawhiri, god of the winds, was the only one to oppose the separation of Rangi and Papa because he so loved them, and therefore waged war on his siblings. Tane fled to the land and Tangaroa (sea god) fled to the sea. Afterwards, Tawhiri turned his attack on Tumatauenga, or Tu, god of war, who was able to stand firm. Disappointed that he was not supported by his brothers, Tu also attacked them, and Tu's descendants (men and women), seek out the children of Tangaroa and Tane (plants and animals of the sea and land) to kill them and use them for food or materials.

47 big fish story] Maui went fishing with his older brothers and bragged that he would catch a bigger fish than them. Using his magic hook, Maui hauled up a giant fish which became the North Island of New Zealand, Te Ika-a-Maui. The South Island is Maui's canoe, Te Waka-a-Maui. On another occasion, Maui killed a giant eel, Tunaroa, which had raped his wife and eaten two of his children. When he caught it, he cut off its head and threw the head into the sea where it became the first conger eel (ngoiro).

48 paua] a kind of abalone

52 manuka] tea-tree

54 Haeremai] Welcome
muka] flax fibres

55 paraoa parai] bread
magic fire woman] Mahuika was the grandmother of Maui and goddess of fire. Maui extinguished all the fires in his village so that he would have an excuse to go to Mahuika for more fire. Mahuika kept the fire in her fingernails, but Maui tricked Mahuika into giving him all her nails, and in vengeance she started a raging fire that was only extinguished with the help of Tawhirimatea. Some of the trees which were burned in the great conflagration contain the seeds of fire and thus make good kindling.

56 kehua] ghost
ka pakaru te upoko] Trans.: "his head is crushed"

57 bad sickness] the influenza epidemic that swept the world in the 1930s
tupapaku] corpses

59 the works] abattoir and freezing works for sheep

60 urupa] cemetery

61 koha] a donation, gift, contribution or expression of support
whanaunga] blood relative
tipuna] ancestor
He aha te mea nui . . .] Trans.: "What's the most important thing in the world? People, people, people." (Proverb).

62 manuhiri] guests
Kaha] Strength, spiritual, physical and emotional. Kia kaha is an exhortation to "Be strong."

67 taniwha] usually an imaginary, fearsome monster that often resides in the water in the form of a lizard or eel. Taniwha are not necessarily dangerous as long as they are kept placated, and the local community has a proprietary interest in their taniwha.

69 kumara] a type of sweet potato resembling a yam

73 kuia] an elderly woman, knowledgeable in tradition, who commands respect; a matriarch.

74 pohara] poor

79 aroha] love, friendship, goodwill

80 pakeke] adults

97 cook food in the ground] a hangi is a feast from an earth oven (umu): a hole is dug and at the bottom are placed white hot stones, above them baskets of food. The oven is covered with soil and left to bake and steam for a few hours until the food is ready. Tourists pay to have artificial hangi feasts while troupes of dancers, dressed up and painted with fake tattoos, perform songs for them.
silly as fantails] Maui attempted to conquer death by turning into a small lizard or caterpillar and crawling through the vagina of the sleeping death goddess, Hine-nui-te-po, in order to take her heart. The fantail could not contain its laughter and excitement, and woke Hine-nui-te-po who closed her legs and killed Maui. A fantail (piwakawaka) is considered to be a silly bird, but is also an omen of death. The womb is considered the threshold between life and death.

99 moki] a species of fish
karaka, pohutukawa, ngaio, nikau, kakaho] species of tree and palm

100 whariki] mats

104 taonga] a treasured thing

105 koroua] elderly men; patriarchs

110 kina] sea egg or sea urchin, a spiny egg with a slimy interior found along the coasts
kahawai] a species of fish

112 tamure] schnapper, a species of fish

115 goddess had set the world on fire] see note to page 55.
uri] descendant

119 hoha] slow; wearisome

120 waiata tangi] song of mourning

121 kotukutuku] fuchsia

123 whanau] extended family

124 Tena koe e Koro] Trans.: "Hello Koro."
Ko James ahau . . .] Trans.: "I'm James, your grandson. Keep well, grandad."
tutu] play

125 Ko Tokowaru-i-te-Marama koe . . .] Trans.: "You're Tokowaru-i-te-Marama; I'm Tokowaru-i-te-Marama. That's all."
Haere mai mokopuna ma . . .] Trans.: "Come in for some bread and a cup of tea, my grandchildren. Come inside. Are you tired? Are you hungry? Come inside."

126 Tino pai o koutou . . .] Trans.: "It's very good of you to decorate the family cemetery. And it's very good to do what your granny tells you. So eat up, everyone. Eat up. And drink as well. . . ."

128 Korero] Speak

129 Pakehas] Non-Maori New Zealanders; this term is usually used to signify those New Zealanders of predominantly British ancestry and their indigenous "Kiwi" culture.
backy] piggy-back

130 ka tika] that's right
Kei te Pai e Pa] Trans.: "It's alright, Dad."

131 he tangata] people

135 topknot] a bun of hair on the top of the head. Perhaps a reference to Maui who was also known as Maui-tikitiki-a-Taranga (the topknot of Taranga) because when he was first cast into the sea as an aborted foetus, he was wrapped in his mother's topknot.

136 whanaungatanga] the lore and customs of the family
tekoteko] carved figures

139 Manaakitia te manuhiri] Look after the visitor.
the Zip] a water boiler

141 poroporoaki] a ritualised farewell ceremony

143 pingao, kiekie, tukutuku] pingao and kiekie are grasses and shrubs used to make the woven panels or tukutuku that ornament the interior walls of the wharenui.

144 kit] basket made of flax (Maori: kete)

147 kamokamo] marrow or cucumber

150 Ko wai tenei . . .] Trans.: "Who's there? What do you want?" The crushing weight is possibly a kehua (ghost).

153 iwi] tribe; people who all trace descent from a common, ancient ancestor

154 heke] rafters

162 freeing of the house] the house has become tapu because of the presence of death, and the tapu must be lifted

167 haka] a type of action song involving dance movements and gestures

170 tamaiti] young boy

172 pito] navel or umbilical cord

174 ngakihi] a species of small shellfish

177 No reira, tena koutou katoa] Trans.: "That is all, greetings to you all."
the colour red] links fire, earth (red-ochre), blood, and represents prosperity. Red, white and black are the three traditional colours for decorating buildings.

178 Kua hinga] Defeated
Takoto] Lie down
Mo te ao pouri] Trans.: "For the dark world."
Cut open the foreheads] self-laceration was once a rite of mourning

184 Ko wai ma nga tekoteko . . .] Trans.: "Who are those carved figures I see before me? They are the ancestors of the people. Who are the people who talk to them? They are the tribe of this land. Who is the boy who sits there? He is the potiki. He is the potiki."
No reira . . .] Trans.: "That is all, my elders, my friends. My children, my grandchildren--Greetings. Greetings, greetings to all of you. The end." "Ka huri" literally means "the return", thus linking ends and beginnings.